來源:民族學刊 作者:[美]托馬斯 S·墨壘寧/著,郎麗娜/譯
注釋:
①這是墨壘寧先生的《與國家達成共識——現代中國的民族識別》(加利弗尼亞大學出版社2011)一書中的第一章中的一部分,該章的題目是“后帝國時代中國身份認同危機”,我們取出其中的關于中華人民共和國實行“民族”識別的歷史動因部分譯出。題目為譯者所加。
②題詞,18頁:毛澤東,“論十大關系”,毛澤東選集,第五卷(北京:外文出版社,1977)。
③小標題為譯者所加,下同。
④早期中華人民共和國行政政策概觀,特別是自治區的形成,見Henry Schwarz(亨利·施瓦茲),Chinese Policies Towards Minorities: An Essay and Documents (Bellingham: Western Washington State College Program in East Asian Studies, 1971)。
⑤鄧小平,《關于〈中華人民共和國全國人民代表大會選舉法〉草案的說明》,《民族政策文選》(烏魯木齊:新疆人民出版社,1985),201。
⑥如上。比如一個十萬人口的縣,規定一千人選一個代表,而某一聚居的少數民族的人口在一萬以下,則它可以少于一千人選代表一人,但最少不得少于五百人選代表一人。凡聚居境內的同一少數民族的總人口數占境內總人口數百分之十以上者,其每一代表所代表的人口數,應相當于當地人民代表大會每一代表所代表的人口數。這一附文是為了阻止那些少數民族人口較多的縣和省在他們各自的人民代表大會中擁有比例不相稱的非漢族人民代表數。
⑦中央人民政府民族事務委員會,《中國少數民族簡表——補充版》(北京:民族事務委員會,1951)。
⑧民族列表,見附錄A。云南省民政廳民族事務委員會,《云南兄弟民族主要分布地區簡圖》,YNPA,全部2152,索引3,文件3(1951年7月20日):5。
⑨民族列表,見附錄B。云南省民族事務委員會,云南兄弟民族主要分布地區略圖,YNPA,全部2152,索引3,文件4(1953年):1。
⑩見附錄A和附錄B中有每一個地區完整的族群名稱(ethnonyms)列表。注:總的群體的數目達不到125個,因為其中有一些群體沒有人口數據。
“云南省選舉工作報告——初稿”YNPA,全總14,索引2,文件84以前的大陸政體已經嘗試了兩次直接的列舉,但每一次都沒能將他們列舉出來。見Chen Ta,”The Beginnings of Modern Demography,”American Journal of Sociology 52(1947): 7-16Chen Ta列舉了在帝國時期的兩次失敗的嘗試——和全國性的列舉,第一次由晚清維新派計劃實施,但在1911年革命時失敗;第二次定于1947年實施,但最終也放棄了。
John S Aird, The Size, Composition, and Growth of the Population of Mainland China (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1961); “La Recensement de la Chine : Methodes et Principaux Resultats,” Population 11, no 4 (October-December 1956), 734 詳細查看《現代中國人口普查的演變》,見Ping-ti Ho, Studies on the Population of China,1368-1953 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959)。
Marc SAbramson, Ethnic Identity in Tang China (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008 ); Hoyt Tillman, “Proto-Nationalism in Twelfth-Century China? The Case of Ch’en Liang,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 39, no 2 (1979): 403-28 對于在這次辯論上形成的有趣的觀點,見 Pamela Kyle Crossley, “Thinking about Ethnicity in Early Modern China,” Late Imperial China 11, no 1 (1990): 1-35; Mark C Elliott, “Ethnicity in the Qing Eight Banners,” in Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China, ed Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F Siu, and Donald S Sutton (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 27-57。
She Yize,《中國土司制度》(重慶:正中書局,1944)。
Peter Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 2005)。
Mark C Elliott, The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001)。更多關于清朝在北方的殖民統治,見James Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998); Nicola Di Cosmo, “Qing Colonial Administration in Inner Asia,” International Historical Review20, no 2 (June 1998): 287-309; Peter Perdue, “Empire and Nation in Comparative Perspective:Frontier Administration in Eighteenth-Century China,”Journal of Early Modern History 5, no4 (November 2001): 282-304; Perdue, China Marches West。
Pamela Crossley, A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999)。
Evelyn Rawski, “Presidential Address: Reenvisioning the Qing: The Significance of the Qing in Chinese History,” Journal of Asian Studies 55 (November 1996)。
Nicola Di Cosmo, “Qing Colonial Administration in Inner Asia, “International Historical Review 20, no2 (June 1998): 287-309; James Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (Stanford: Stanford University Press,1998); Peter Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005)。
C Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China’s Yunnan Frontier (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,2006)。
John E Herman, “Empire in the Southwest: Early Qing Reforms to the Native Chieftain System,” Journal of Asian Studies 56, no1(February 1997): 47-74。
Giersch, Asian Borderlands, 45又見 Louisa Schein, Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China’s Cultural Politics (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000) 又見Dai Yingcong, “The Rise of the Southwestern Frontier under the Qing, l640-1800″(PhD diss, University of Washington, 1996)。
Giersch, Asian Borderlands, 61-62。
同上,第四章。
同上,190更多關于清朝在西南的政策,尤其特別關注漢族遷移所帶來的潛在的不穩定的影響,見 David Bello, “To Go Where No Han Could Go for Long: Malaria and the Qing Construction of Ethnic Administrative Space in Frontier Yunnan,” Modern China 31, no 3 (July 2005): 283-317。
David Atwill, The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China,1856-1873(Stanford:Stanford University Press, 2005), 67-68 當我們看戴維龍的說明時,唐納德·薩頓(donald Sutton)所做的工作,對于我們去了解在帝國晚期對居住在清朝邊境的民族所實施的暴力的維度,提供了一個更廣闊的背景。見 Donald S Sutton, “Violence and Ethnicity on a Qing Colonial Frontier,” Modern Asian Studies 37, no 1 (2003): 41-80。
Atwill, Zhe Chinese Sultanate, 70-76。
Kai-wing Chow, “Imagining Boundaries of Blood: 章炳麟 and the Invention of the Chinese Race in Modern China,” in Racial Identities in East Asia, ed Barry Sautman (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 1995); Dru Gladney, Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)。
值得提醒的是,這些過程不等同于中國化,伊夫林·羅斯基(Evelyn Rawski)闡明了這一點。見Evelyn Rawski, “Presidential Address”;何炳棣(Ping-Ti Ho),“In Defense of Sinicization: A Rebuttal of Evelyn Rawski’s ‘Reenvisioning the Qing,’”Journal of Asian Studies 57 (February 1998) Beyond Confucian and Chinese practice, the Manchu had positioned themselves as patrons of their other imperial subjects as well, including the Mongolians and Tibetans See Harold L Kahn, Monarchy in the Emperor’s Eyes: Image and Reality in the Ch’ien-lung Reign (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); David M Farquhar, “Emperor as Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Ch’ing Empire,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 38, no1(1978): 5-34。
審查漢滿兩族在世紀之交的關系,見愛德華·J·M·羅德(Eedward J M Rhoads ),Manchus and Han: ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001)關于民族主義的復雜性和章炳麟的反滿思想,見考科·萊蒂寧(Kauko Laitinen ),Chinese Nationalism in the late Qing Dynasty:章炳麟 as art Anti-Manchu Propagandist (London: Curzon Press,1990)又見Young-tsu Yong,Search for Modern Nationalism,章炳麟and Revolutionary China, 1869-1936 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989)有趣的是,張在反滿族思想這一問題上的矛盾,在早期曾被約書亞·福格爾( Joshua Fogel)提出,當時他還是哥倫比亞大學的一名研究生。見約書亞 A·福格爾( Joshua A Fogel),”Race and Class in Chinese Historiography: Divergent Interpretations of章炳麟 and Anti-Manchuism in the 1911 Revolution,” Modern China 3, no 3 (July1977): 346-75了解更多晚清時期的反滿信息,見沙培德(Peter Zarrow),“Historical Trauma: Anti-Manchuism and memories of Atrocity in Late Qing China;”History and Memory 16, no 2 (2004年秋或冬): 67一107; Ishikawa Yoshihiro “Anti-Manchu Racism and the Rise of Anthropology in Early 20th Century China; Sino-Japanese Studies 15 (April 2003): 19-26; Ishikawa Yoshihiro, Racialism during the Revolution of 1911 and the Rise of Chinese Anthropology (Beijing: Central Literature Press, 2002) 對于當代反滿宣傳的腐蝕性例子之一,見鄒榮(Tsou Jung),1903年出版的革命軍:一本中國民族主義的小冊子, trans John Lust (The Hague: Mouton,1969)。更多關于達爾文的進化論和社會達爾文主義的理論被介紹到中國,見詹姆斯·里夫蒲賽(James Reeve Pusey,China and Charles Darwin (Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1983)。
Chow,“Imagining Boundaries of Blood,”157 對于更多有關“族”和“民族”話語的中心地位在表達反滿時的位置,見 Kai-wing Chow, “Narrating Nation, Race and National Culture: Imagining the Hanzu Identity in Modern China,”in Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia, ed Kai-ruing Chow; Kevin Doak, and Poshek Fu (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 47-83。
同上。
Rhoads, Manchus and Han, 291 顛覆性的民族話語也找到了進入晚清鄉土教材的方式。對于最近的一個有趣的研究,見 May-bo Ching, “Classifying Peoples: Ethnic Politics in late Qing Native Place Textbooks and Gazetteers,” in The Politics of Historical Production in Late Qing and Republican China, ed Tze-ki Hon and Robert Culp (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 55-78。
Edward JMRhoads, Manchus and Han; Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000)。
Joseph W Esherick,”How the Qing Became China,”in Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the making of the Modern World, ed Joseph W Esherick, Hasan Kayali, and Eric Van Young (Lanham,MD: Rowman &Littlefield, 2006), 243-45。
Elliott, The Manchu Way 對于八旗制度及其它在滿族認同形成中所起的作用作出的一個更簡明地概述,見 Elliott, “Ethnicity in the Qing Eight Banners” 除了埃利奧特的說明,又見Ning Chia,“The Lifanyuan and the Inner Asian Rituals in the Early Qing (1644-1795)”Late Imperial China 14, no 1(June 1993):60-92, Evelyn SRawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley:University of California Press,1998); Crossley, A Translucent Mirror; Peter Perdue,Empire and Nation in Comparative Perspective。”
對于更多有關從帝國到民族國家這種麻煩的過渡。見帕梅拉·克羅斯利(Pamela Crossley),“Nationality and Difference: The Post-Imperial Dilemma,”Late Imperial China 11, no1(1990):1-35。
約瑟夫·W·埃謝里克,(Joseph W Esherick),“How the Qing Became China,”248-52。
對于在20世紀上半期深入研究蒙古族,見Xiaoyuan Liu,Rains of Liberation:An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence,Chinese Territoriality,and Great Power Hegemony,1911-1950(Stanford:Stanford University Press,2006)。
Lin Hsiao-ting,Tibet and Nationalist China’s Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics,1928-49 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,2006)。
“五族共和”也可以翻譯為“五個種族(five race)”。盡管“種族”這一翻譯的確是獲取本質主義思想的一項好的做法,但是它掩蓋了五族形成的前現代源頭,以及與在清八旗制度下所做的分類的關系。使用種族這一術語暗含了與過去劃清界線,和基于現代主義基礎上的一個新的形成,這是達爾文(darwinian)的概念。“五個民族(five peoples)”避免了這種現代主義的偏見。另一個有吸引力的替代是“五種血統(five lineages)”,是最近由詹姆斯·雷鮑德(James Leibold)建議的。見James Leibold,“Competing Narratives of Racial Unity in Republican China:From the Yellow Emperor to Peking Man,”Modern China 32,no2(2006年4月):181-220。
約翰·菲茨杰拉德(John Fitzgerald),Awakening China:Politics,Culture,and Class in the Nationalist Revolution (Stanford:Stanford University Press,1988),183;詹姆斯·雷鮑德(James Leibold),“Positing ‘民族’within Sun Yat-sen’s Discourse of ‘民族主義’,Journal of Asia History 38,nos1-2:163-213在一些方面,從帝國到民族國家的轉變也同樣帶來了類似于日本的挑戰。依據不同的邊界邏輯,已經繼承了德川的領土,在一個日本帝國領域其他的部分和被排除的部分,明治日本國家選擇去擴展不能分化的主權。見大衛·L·豪威爾(David LHowell),“Ainu Ethnicity and the Boundaries of the Early Modern Japanese State,”Past and present142(1994年2月):69-93。
DKLieu,“The1912 Census of China,” Bulletin de l’Institut International de statistique 26,第2(1931):85-109。
蘇聯領導人敦促中國共產黨將民族解放事業擴大到邊境地區。通過中國共產黨的言論,他們企圖壓制國民黨對居住在邊界的少數民族實施半自治狀態的統治,同時這一政策已經促進了蘇聯在蒙古和新疆的持續的影響。見Xiaoyuan Liu,Frontier Passages: Ethnopolitics and the Rise of Chinese Communism,1921-1945(Stanford:Stanford University Press,2004)。
哈羅德·J·威恩斯(Herold J Wiens),China’s March Toward the Tropics: A Discussion of the Southward Penetration of China’s Culture, Peoples and Political Control in Relation to the Non-Han-Chinese Peoples of South China and in the Perspective of Historical and Cultural Geography (Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press,1954), 151-152。
Xiaoyuan Liu,Frontier Passages,23-24。
弗蘭克(Frank Dikotter),The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London: Hurst, 1992)。
帕特麗夏·斯特拉納漢(Patricia Stranahan),Underground:The Shanghai Communist Party and the Politics of Survival, 1927-1937 (Lanham, MD: Rowman &Littlefield, 1998)。
蔣介石,《中國之命運》,第二次修訂,編緝(1943;1947;重印,臺北:中正書局,1986),73;Liu,Frontier Passages,73。
“Constitution of the Soviet Republic” (November 7, 1931), in Schwarz, Chinese Polities Towards Minorities。
同上,49。
哈里森·E·索爾茲伯里(Harrison E Salisbury),長征,(New York Harper and Row, 1985),107-8。
格拉德尼(Dru Gladney),Muslim Chinese, 87 除了格拉德尼的敘述,又見林黃明(Lin Huangming),“紅軍長征與民族工作”,長征大事典編委會,卷2,編緝,長征大事典(貴陽:貴州人民出版社,1996):2046-2051。
Liu,Frontier Passages,80。
詹姆斯·雷鮑德(James Leibold),“Competing Narratives of Racial Unity in Republican China”。
蔣介石,《中國之命運》,13這一問題出現在1947年的版本中,而不是出現在1943年的原版本中。在大多數情況下,事實上,1947年版比原版更公開主張社會同化和單基因遺傳。
埃利奧特(Elliott),The Manchu Way。
蔣介石,《中國之命運》,20-21。
黃帝祖先的神話已經被詹姆斯·雷鮑德(James Leibold)巧妙地處理。見James Leibold,“Competing Narratives of Racial Writing in Republican China: From the Yellow Emperor to Peking Man,” Modern China 32, no 2 (2006): 181-220。
戴維·邁克爾(David Michael Deal),”National Minority Policy in Southwest China, 1911-1965″(PhD diss, University of Washington, 1971), 56。
民族問題研究會,編輯,回回民族問題(北京:民族出版社,1980)。
同上,67。
同上,69。共產黨理論家和宣傳者陳伯達(Chen Boda)也提出了反對蔣介石的中國之命運的宣言。見陳伯達,“評‘中國之命運’”,民族問題文獻匯編,編緝,中共中央統戰部(北京:中共中央黨校出版社,1991)。
A Study of the Ethnic Policies of China: Focusing on”Ethnic Theories” from the Late Qing until 1945 (Tokyo: Taga Shuppan, 1999)王建民,《中國民族學史》(上)(昆明:云南教育出版社,1997),228。
陳廉貞和黃操良(Chen Lianzhen, Huang Caoliang),《抗戰中的中國民族問題》(海口:黎明書局,1938),8。
同上。
見沃克S康納(Walker S Connor), The National Question in Marxist-Leninist theory and Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984)。
陳廉貞和黃操良(Chen Lianzhen, Huang Caoliang),抗戰中的中國民族問題,44。
戴維·邁克爾(David Michael Deal),“National Minority Policy in Southwest China,”59-60。
亨利·施瓦茲(Henry Schwarz),Chinese Policies Towards Minorities,52-53 。
同上。
黃光學,編輯,《當代中國的民族工作(上)》,(北京:當代中國叢書編緝委員會,1993),66。
約翰·德范克(John DeFrancis),“National and Minority policies”,Annals of the American Academy of political and Social Science 277 (1951),154當然,在共產主義的早期,國家整合推廣的努力超越了民族政治的管理。對于從一個更廣闊的視角來看待中華人民共和國早期云南的管理,見多蘿西·J·索林杰( Dorothy J Solinger),Regional Government and Political Integration in Southwest China,1949-1954:A Case Study(Berkeley:University of California press,1977)。
約翰·赫爾曼(John Herman),“The Cant of Conquest:Tsui Officies and China’Political Incorporation of the Southwestern Frontier,”in Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China,ed Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen FSiu,and Donald SSutton(Berkeley:University of California Press,2006),135-70; 黃光學,《當代中國的民族工作(上)》,46。
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